Adult/Community Educators

  

Group 3 Members	Roles	Commented On
Kayla Dusseau  (co-leader)	Write introduction, create summary table and edit document. Create timeline and post to blog	Group 4
Kylie Hartman  (co-leader)	Put together contributions, impact, & implications of Knowles	Group #4
Marie Prevost	Put together background, profile, & perspectives of Knowles	Group #1
Amber Smith	Put together background, profile, & perspectives of Dewey	Group #4
Shimera Thomas	Put together contributions, impact, &, implications of Dewey	Group #1

   

Adult and Community Educators: Dewey & Knowles 

EDAC 631 - Group 3 

Ball State University 

  

Introduction 

           There have been many influential adult educators that have helped shape the world of adult education. For this paper, we will take a deeper look into the work of John Dewey and Malcolm Knowles. Dewey and Knowles have similar backgrounds and theories about adult learning. They both have influenced experiential (informal) learning theories for adult learners. While they have impacted the realm of adult education, both Dewey and Knowles have their individualistic differences. This paper will look at the background, perspectives, contributions, impact and implications of these two adult educators.  

John Dewey 

Background 

           John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859 in Vermont and later died on June 2, 1952 at the age of 92. Dewey is widely regarded as the “father of progressive education” and is one of the most influential educational philosophers of the twentieth century (Chambliss, 1996). A philosopher with a passion for education reform, Dewey was a strong proponent for progressive education with his underlying belief that education should be based on learning through doing. Dewey is often wrongly associated with child-centered education (Smith, 2001). Though much of his work focused on education of children, his influence can be seen on several individuals that have influenced the development of informal education including Coyle, Kolb, Lindeman, and Rogers (Smith, 2001). 

Profile 

           Dewey excelled in his studies in the public-school system during his childhood, eventually enrolling at the University of Vermont where he obtained his bachelor’s degree in 1879 (Gouinlock, 2018). While attending the University of Vermont Dewey was first exposed to evolutionary theory, including the concept of natural selection (Field, n.d.). After graduating from the University of Vermont Dewey briefly taught at a high school for two years. During this time Dewey decided to pursue a career in philosophy after penning a philosophical essay that was accepted by W.T. Harris, editor of the Journal of Speculative Philosophy (Field, n.d.). Dewey then enrolled as a graduate student at Johns Hopkins University and received his doctorate in 1884 (Chambliss, 1996).  Upon receiving his doctorate Dewey accepted a teaching position at the University of Michigan where he remained for the following ten years (Field, n.d.). While at Michigan Dewey wrote his first two books, Psychology and Leibniz’s New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (Field, n.d.), and his interests shifted to experimental psychology which was being advanced by G. Stanley Hall and the pragmatist philosopher and psychologist William James (Gouinlock, 2018). 

In 1894 Dewey left the University of Michigan and went on to teach at the University of Chicago where he founded the University Laboratory School and furthered the development of his progressive pedagogy (Gouinlock, 2018). Disagreements with the administration over the Laboratory School eventually led to Dewey’s resignation from the University of Chicago in 1904 (Field, n.d.). From there Dewey joined the Department of Philosophy at Columbia University, where he remained for the rest of his professional career. Dewey formally retired from teaching in 1930 but continued to work as a productive philosopher until his death (Field, n.d.). 

Perspectives 

           Darwin’s theory of natural selection had a strong influence on Dewey, much like Darwin described organisms adapting to their environment, Dewey’s views on psychology and education theories focused on the interaction between the human organism and its environment (Field, n.d.). The interaction between the human organism and its environment is linked to Dewey’s push for pragmatism with following thought: 

Inquiry should not be understood as consisting of a mind passively observing the world  and drawing from this ideas that if true correspond to reality, but rather as a process which initiates with a check or obstacle to successful human action, proceeds to active manipulation of the environment to test hypotheses, and issues in a re-adaptation of organism to environment that allows once again for human action to proceed (Field, n.d., para. 1) 

Dewey was in favor of applying pragmatism to education, eventually bringing about a new approach, the progressive education movement. The progressive education movement reflected many of Dewey’s perspectives including that learners should be actively involved in the learning process with experience-based instruction, learning should be based on the needs or interest of the learner, and teachers should be facilitators of learning rather than an authority figure (Sadovnik, Semel, Gouchlan, Kanze, & Tyner-Mullings, 2017). A final perspective of Dewey is the value he placed on democracy as a social condition that allowed for the flexible adaptation of people. Dewey believed that experimental thought processes promoted democratic habits by encouraging individuals to respond to society’s needs through inventive and experimental means rather than assertive, inflexible means (Fields, n.d.). Dewey believed that schools should be an extension of the democratic society, meaning school should allow students to be a member of a community where they can pursue their own interests while cooperating with others (Fields, n.d.). Overall, Dewey's high regard for a democratic form of life was an underlying theme for his perspective on progressive education that is unique to the needs of the individual, just as a democratic society is flexible and adaptive to the needs of society. 

Contributions 

         In the late 1800’s, Dewey was an active member of the University of Michigan educational board of directors and a professor of philosophy for over ten years. In 1896, Dewey continued his journey in educational studies moving to Illinois, where he began the study of Pedagogy in Chicago which was later called the Department of Education (Festenstein, 2014). Dewey’s attributes were also published a plethora literature around politics, spirituality, literacy, and cultivation (Cherry, 2018). 

           By utilizing communities, in a social setting and calling upon his powerful belief in democracy Dewey formed most of his theories based on learning environments. He was also an extensive patron of the teachers union, a key factor in the evolution of Jane Addams, and spoke out about expression of individualism (Festenstein, 2014).  Dewey was a historian, a theorist of philosophy in pragmatism. His findings indicate that we are obligated to experience and have reflection about those experiences. He was adamant that peers should collaborate and interact socially within their environment to gain or further their knowledge. This practice can be found in many present-day schools.  Teachers are collaborating more and have more common planning around lessons, professional development and student achievement as well as their professional practices. He also functioned under the percept, to truly reach learners you should begin while they were young. Repeatedly, Dewey has proven his implications on the future life learners through his effort in educating. 

Impact 

        Dewey’s theory supports and advocates for a variation of learning styles, for instance kinesthetic, accommodative, diverse, and divergent learners (MacKeracher, 2004). The kinesthetic learner learns best by experience. Kinesthetic learners remember information well when they actively participate in activities, take field trips, and role-playing in the classroom. Accommodative learners are emotional do-ers and adventure learners. Although, they follow guidelines they are also seekers of action and boundless go-getters.  Divergent learners are very similar to kinesthetic learners and interactive/engagement learners. Divergent learners assumed to be special needs learners that are usually diagnosed with a learning disability and have an individualized educational plan (IEP).   

        Although, Dewey’s teachings support most learning styles the theory does not quite fit the convergent learner. For this reason: Dewey’s style of learning does not provide the infrastructure for these learners and there is an essential need for structure and guidance for them. Convergent learners are fact, statistics learner’s, logical thinkers, and test takers that analyze the problems to arrive at the best possible solution (MacKeracher, 2004). Dewey’s philosophy would not be a sufficient fit for the convergent learner, but it could be a reasonable fit considering it provides those liberating experiences.  

Implications 

      Dewey’s influence on practical work can be utilized in adult continued education with the use of a variety of concepts. These concepts include holistic learning, exploring openness, setting short and long-term goals, being creative and building relationships. Chicago Public Schools intertwines the foundation and theory of Dewey’s teachings within the current curriculum and practices of elementary and high schools. Teachers are using strategic lesson plans that will follow students from preschool to adulthood. Dewey’s individualism theory and practices are also used to accommodate all styles of learning with the use of age appropriate literacy tools, manipulatives, peer review, modified support, assessments, placement, one on one student support, and parent involvement. Dewey wasn’t affectionate about customary or modern education within the intuition of learning, his focus was reciprocal action and consistency.   

Malcolm Knowles 

Background  

Malcolm Knowles was born on August 24, 1913 in Montana and passed away on November 27, 1997 at the age of 84 (Bates, 2009). He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from Harvard University in 1934. In 1940, Knowles became the Director of Adult Education at the YMCA in Boston (Knowles, 1989, p.14). He was drafted into the Navy in 1943 and, after finishing his draft requirements, moved to Chicago to complete a master's program for adult education (Smith, 2002). It was during this time that Knowles’ beliefs began to be shaped. Knowles lived through both World Wars, The Great Depression, The Civil Rights Movement, and the major legislation creation for adult education in the 1960s. During his lifetime, he made numerous contributions to the adult education world that are still being felt today.  

Profile 

Malcolm Knowles began his college education on a scholarship to Harvard where he studied philosophy, history, literature, and political science (Smith, 2002). During his time at Harvard, Knowles invested a lot of his energy in extracurriculars, including being the President of the Harvard Liberal Club, and utilized these experiences to shape his time in college. It was at Harvard that Knowles would meet his future wife. Knowles married Hulda Fornell in 1935. They had two kids, Eric and Barbara Knowles (Knowles, 1989, p. 29). Initially, Knowles had plans to work in Foreign Service, and even passed the Foreign Service exam but, with a waiting period of three years and a need for a job, Knowles joined the new National Youth Administration in Massachusetts instead. This was his first experience with educating adults. His job was to find out what skills local employers were searching for, create classes to teach those skills, and then recruit young adults to participate in those courses. In 1940, Knowles accepted a job at the Boston YMCA where he acted as the Director of Adult Education, and he created an ‘Association School’ for adults. In 1943, he was drafted into the Navy and it was during this time that Knowles read up on the teachings of the adult education field. After leaving the Navy, Knowles was admitted into the University of Chicago master's program. He also accepted a job at the Central Chicago YMCA, as their director of adult education (Knowles, 1989, p. 14). Knowles’ adviser, Cyril Houle, inspired him to invest in a commitment to scholarship and scholarly approaches to learning. Knowles most impactful moment during his time at the University of Chicago came during a class with Arthur Shedlin. It was this counselling course, that introduced Knowles to the idea of self-directed learning and inspired his initial ideas of what would become his idea of Andragogy (Smith, 2002).  

Perspectives 

Self-directed learning, according to Malcolm Knowles is a process: 

… in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes (1975, p. 18). 

Knowles, during his time studying and researching self-directed learning introduced three reasons for self-directed learning. The first reason is that people that take the initiative to learn will learn more, in a better way, than those who do not have initiative and wait to be taught by a teacher. Proactive learners also tend to retain what they are learning, Knowles argues (1975, p. 14) more so than those who are simply reactive learners. The second reason Knowles argued is that self-directed learners become more attuned to psychological development. It’s essential, Knowles (1975, p. 15) argues, to the maturing process for learners to develop the ability to take responsibility for one’s own life. The third reason for self-directed learning is programs are becoming more dependent on learners taking a responsibility for their own learning. To prevent anxiety, frustration, and failure, it is important for learners to enter into adult education with the ability to self-direct their education. 

This idea helped develop Knowles’ perspective of informal adult education. Knowles spent much of his young adult life working for the YMCA organization creating informal adult education classes for the community he served. This paired with his time being advised by Houle and taking classes taught by Shedlin really helped bring Knowles to this idea of adults taking control of their own education and being proactive learners. Knowles spent the remainder of his life developing programs and providing speaking engagements at various universities across the United States. 

Contributions 

Malcolm Knowles is best known for his theory of andragogy, or adult learning theory.  Knowles defined andragogy as, “the art and science of helping adults learn” (Merriam & Brockett, 2011, p. 15).  Knowles would spend decades crafting what he came to call “the art and science of facilitating adult learning” (Kasworm, Rose, & Ross-Gordon, 2010, p. 40). He is referred to as the “Father of Andrology” (Bates, 2009).  He would take this virtually unknown term and turn it into his life’s focus. His model of Andragogy is based on five different assumptions. The five assumptions of andragogy are that adults are self-directed learners, adult learners bring a wealth of experience to the educational setting, adults enter educational settings ready to learn, adults are problem-centered in their learning, and adults are best motivated by internal forces (Blondy/University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 2007, p. 116).  The first assumption of self-concept means as a person matures they become a self-directed human being. The second assumption means as a person matures he/she accumulates experiences that become an unlimited resource for their learning. The third assumption means that as a person matures their readiness to learn becomes ultimately connected to their own social roles. The fourth assumption means that as a person matures his perspectives change from one of subject centered to one problem centered.  Lastly, the fifth and final assumption means that as a person matures, the motivation to learn is internal. Along with the five assumptions, Knowles had four principles of andragogy. Planning, experience, relevance, and content. Adults need to be directly involved in all aspects of planning of their learning. Adults tend to learn from their own personal experiences. Adults are most engaged in learning when the subject has relevance to their own lives.  

Impact 

Malcolm Knowles has had a major impact on adult education.  His ideas and theories changed the ideas and field of adult education forever.  

Andragogy, is one of the most widely discussed and critiqued aspects of the adult education literature in America.  Most critiques conceptualize andragogy as a method or model and attempt to discern its effectiveness in general and its exclusivity to adults (Kasworm, 2010, p. 40).   

Andragogy has permeated the field of adult education despite ongoing debate regarding its usefulness and application (Blondy/University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 2007, p. 116).  Andragogy or theory of adult education, will remain a topic of debate. 

Implications  

It is because of Malcolm Knowles that adult education or andragogy is thought of as separate entity from pedagogy.  He brought to the forefront the importance of adults being involved in all aspects of their own education. By doing this, he brought focus to the fact that adult students need certain things and bring different aspects and experiences to the learning environment, that may have previously been overlooked.  It is because of his ongoing life’s work that adult education has gotten the attention, recognition, and focus it deserves.  

References 

Bates, C. (2009). Malcolm Knowles, 1913-1997. Retrieved from http://web.utk.edu/~start6/knowles/malcolm_knowles.html  

Blondy/University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, L. C. (2007). Evaluation and Application of Andragogical Assumptions to the Adult Online Learning Environment. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 6(2), 116-130. Retrieved from http://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/pdf/6.2.3.pdfx 

Chambliss, J. (1996). Philosophy of education: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland Press. 

Cherry, K. (2018, January 16). John Dewey's instrumental contributions to educational philosophy. Retrieved February 28, 2018, from https://www.verywellmind.com/john-dewey-biography-1859-1952-2795515 

Festenstein, M. (2014, February 6). Dewey's political philosophy. Retrieved February 28, 2018, from https://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=dewey-political  

Field, R. (n.d.). John Dewey. In Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://www.iep.utm.edu/dewey/#H2 
Gouinlock, J. (2018). John Dewey. In Encyclopedia Britannica online. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey  

Kasworm, C. E., Rose, A. D., & Ross-Gordon, J. M. (2010). Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. 

Knowles, M.S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Associated Press 

Knowles, M.S. (1989). The making of an adult educator: an autobiographical journey (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass. 

MacKeracher, D. (2010). Making sense of adult learning (2nd ed., 2004). Toronto: University of Toronto Press 

Merriam, S. B., & Brockett, R. G. (2011). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An Introduction. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. 

Sadovnik, A., Semel, S., Coughlan, R., Kanze, B., & Tyner-Mullings, A. (2017). Progressive Education In The 21St Century: The Enduring Influence Of John Dewey. The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 16(04), 515-530. doi:10.1017/s1537781417000378 

Smith, M. K. (2001). John Dewey on education, experience, and community. Retrieved from: http://infed.org/mobi/john-dewey-on-education-experience-and-community/  

Smith, M.K. (2002). 'Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy.' The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved 3/6/2018, from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-kno wl.htm